398 Copy quote. me. Adam Smith considered Machiavellis tone to be markedly cool and detached, even in discussions of the egregious exploits of Cesare Borgia. This is at least partly why explorations of deceit and dissimulation take on increasing prominence as both works progress (e.g., P 6, 19, and especially 26; D 3.6). The episode is probably apocryphal. Since the mix must vary according to circumstances, he cannot be sure of the proportion of each. Like many other authors in the republican tradition, he frequently ponders the problem of corruption (e.g., D 1.17, 1. Whether veneration (venerazione) and reverence (riverenzia) are ultimately higher concepts than glory remains an important question, and recent work has taken it up. Machiavelli offers a gloss of the story of David and Goliath which differs in numerous and substantive ways from the Biblical account (see I Samuel 17:32-40, 50-51). On this account, political form for Machiavelli is not fundamentally causal; it is at best epiphenomenal and perhaps even nominal. Other scholars highlight Machiavellis concerns, especially in his correspondence, with astrological determinism (a version of which his friend, Vettori, seems to have held). In the Discourses, Moses is a lawgiver who is compelled to kill infinite men due to their envy and in order to push his laws and orders forward (D 3.30; see also Exodus 32:25-28). Some of Machiavellis writings treat historical or political topics. Machiavelli refers simply to Discorsi in the Dedicatory Letter to the work, however, and it is not clear whether he intended the title to specifically pick out the first ten books by name. Recent work has attempted to explore Machiavellis use of this term, with respect not only to his metaphysics but also to his thoughts on moral responsibility. He is the very embodiment of the ingenuity, efficacy, manliness, foresight, valor, strength, shrewdness, and so forth that defines Machiavellis concept of political virtuosity. Machiavelli maintained his innocence throughout this excruciating ordeal. When he was twelve, Machiavelli began to study under the priest Paolo da Ronciglione, a famous teacher who instructed many prominent humanists. The rise of Castruccio Castracani, alluded to in Book 1 (e.g., FH 1.26), is further explored (FH 2.26-31), as well as various political reforms (FH 2.28 and 2.39). To expand politics to include the world implies that the world governs politics or politics governs the world or both. For example, we should imitate animals in order to fight as they do, since human modes of combat, such as law, are often not enoughespecially when dealing with those who do not respect laws (P 18). In 1476, when Machiavelli was eight years old, his father obtained a complete copy of Livy and prepared an index of towns and places for the printer Donnus Nicolaus Germanus. Secondly, in the preface to the Florentine Histories Machiavelli suggests that Florences disintegration into multiple divisions (divisioni) is unique in the history of republics, but it is unclear how or why the typical humors of the people drove this great subdivide further in Florence (though FH 2 and 3 may offer important clues). Email: honeycutt_ks@mercer.edu 5.0 out of 5 stars The few must be deferred, the many impressed or How I learned to live with the effectual truth. His father was Bernardo, a doctor of law who spent a considerable part of his meager income on books and who seems to have been especially enamored of Cicero. Finally, he says that virtuous princes can introduce any form that they like, with the implication being that form does not constitute the fundamental reality of the polity (P 6). An additional interpretative difficulty concerns the books structure. Machiavelli wrote The Prince to serve as a handbook for rulers, and he claims explicitly throughout the work that he is not interested in talking about ideal republics or imaginary utopias, as many of his predecessors had done: There is such a gap between how one lives and how one should live that he who neglects what is being done for what should be done will learn his destruction rather than his preservation.. The countess later reneged on a verbal agreement, making Machiavelli look somewhat foolish. But evidence in his correspondencefor instance, in letters from close friends such as Francesco Vettori and Francesco Guicciardinisuggests that Machiavelli did not take pains to appear publicly religious. Government means controlling ones subjects (D 2.23), and good government might mean nothing more than a scorched-earth, Tacitean wasteland which one simply calls peace (P 7). Therefore its obviously better for a prince to be feared rather than loved, since fear is a constant emotion, which will remain true to itself no matter how much circumstances may shift. Nevertheless, the young Niccol received a solid humanist education, learning Latin and some Greek. Machiavellis nephew, Giuliano de Ricci, is responsible for assembling the copies of letters that Machiavelli had made. However, it remains unclear exactly what Machiavelli means by terms such as corruption, freedom, law, and even republic. It is therefore not surprising that the content of his republicanism remains unclear, as well. William J. Connell is Professor of History and La . Giuliano would also commission the Florentine Histories (which Machiavelli would finish by 1525). Some scholars have emphasized the various places where Machiavelli associates Christianity with the use of dissimulation (e.g., P 18) and fear (e.g., D 3.1) as a form of social control. We do not know whether Giuliano or Lorenzo ever read the work. Others see the Discourses as a later, more mature work and take its teaching to be truer to Machiavellis ultimate position, especially given his own work for the Florentine republic. It goes without saying that there are many important books that are not mentioned. All rights reserved. In this Text to Text, we pair Machiavelli's "The Prince" with the Times Opinion article "Why Machiavelli Still Matters" by John T. Scott and Robert Zaretsky. The Project Gutenberg EBook of Bacon's Essays and Wisdom of the Ancients, by Francis Bacon This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts o Many Machiavellian themes from The Prince and the Discourses recur in the Art of War. Finally, recent work has emphasized the extent to which Machiavellis concerns appear eminently terrestrial; he never refers in either The Prince or the Discourses to the next world or to another world. Though Book 1 is ostensibly a narrative concerning the time from the decline of the Roman Empire, in Book 2 he calls Book 1 our universal treatise (FH 2.2), thus implying that it is more than a simple narrative. Some interpreters have even suggested that Machiavelli writes to more than one audience simultaneously. Books 2, 3, and 4 concern the history of Florence itself from its origins to 1434. Machiavelli often situates virtue and fortune in tension, if not opposition. Although what follows are stylized and compressed glosses of complicated interpretations, they may serve as profitable beginning points for a reader interested in pursuing the issue further. Nederman (1999) examines free will. Alternatively, it might be a condition that we can alter, implying that we can alter the meaning of necessity itself. In the preface to the Florentine Histories, he calls Leonardo Bruni and Poggio Bracciolini two very excellent historians but goes on to point out their deficiencies (FH Pref). Corruption is a moral failing and more specifically a failing of reason. Its the human imagination that in the long run proves itself the truly efficacious and revolutionary force. His call for a legendary redeemer to unite Italy is a notable example (P 26). An early copy of a portrait by Raphael. The philosopher should therefore take care not to disclose his own lack of belief or at least should attack only impoverished interpretations of religion rather than religion as such. Some scholars point to Machiavellis use of mitigating rhetorical techniques and to his reading of classical authors in order to argue that his notion of virtue is in fact much closer to the traditional account than it first appears. We first hear of it in Machiavellis 10 December 1513 letter to his friend, Francesco Vettori, wherein Machiavelli divulges that he has been composing a little work entitled De Principatibus. Machiavellis very name has become a byword for treachery and relentless self-interest. The Legations date from the period that Machiavelli worked for the Florentine government (1498-1512). Piero is highlighted mainly for lacking the foresight and prudence of his father; for fomenting popular resentment; and for being unable to resist the ambition of the great. They tend to believe in appearances (P 18) and also tend to be deceived by generalities (D 1.47, 3.10, and 3.34). But in fact it is replete with recommendations of moderation and self-discipline. In his day the notion of the world immediately raised the question of which world, this one or the next? In 1501, he would take three trips to the city of Pistoia, which was being torn to pieces by factional disputes (P 17). One possibility is that The Prince is not a polished work; some scholars have suggested that it was composed in haste and that consequently it might not be completely coherent. Some scholars focus on possible origins of this idea (e.g., medieval medicine or cosmology), whereas others focus on the fact that the humors are rooted in desire. Machiavelli was a 16th century Florentine philosopher known primarily for his political ideas. At least two of these virtues are mentioned in later chapters of The Prince. They have little prudence (D 2.11) but great ambition (D 2.20). Machiavelli's ideal paradigm for governing is to be understood amidst the subtle intersections between the 'effectual truth' of politics as both the art and science of leadership self-preservation and the mastery of 'fortune' with action Journal of International Relations and Development Volume 8, Number 3, 2005 264 to be justified by the overriding criteria of necessity. Niccol di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (/ m k i v l i / MAK-ee--VEL-ee, US also / m k-/ MAHK-, Italian: [nikkol mmakjavlli]; 3 May 1469 - 21 June 1527), was an Italian diplomat, author, philosopher and historian who lived during the Renaissance.He is best known for his political treatise The Prince (Il Principe), written around 1513 but not published until 1532. Machiavellis actual beliefs, however, remain mysterious. Machiavelli compares the Pope with the Ottoman Turk and the Egyptian Sultan (P 19; compare P 11). Biasiori, Lucio, and Giuseppe Marcocci, eds. The new leader railed against church corruption embodied in the worldly Pope Alexander VI. This is a curious coincidence and one that is presumably intentional. He says that he will leave out what is imagined and will instead discuss what is true. In the proem to the Platonic Theology, Ficino calls Plato the father of philosophers (pater philosophorum). Touching rather than seeing might then be the better metaphor for the effectual truth (see P 18). Like The Prince, the Discourses on Livy admits of various interpretations. Such interpretations implore human beings to think more of enduring their beatings than of avenging them (D 2.2 and 3.27). Alexander VI died in August 1503 and was replaced by Pius III (who lasted less than a month). He wrote poetry and plays during this period, and in 1518 he likely wrote his most famous play, Mandragola. Miguel Vatter (2017, 2013, and 2000) could be reasonably placed here and additionally deserves mention for his familiarity with the secondary literature in Spanish (an unusual achievement for Machiavelli scholars who write in English). He also compares the Christian pontificate with the Janissary and Mameluk regimes predominant under Sunni Islam (P 19; see also P 11). In a digression in The Prince, Machiavelli refers to David as a figure of the Old Testament (una figura del Testamento vecchio; P 13). Now,Arts & Letter Daily haslinked us to The New Criterions post on Machiavellis philosophical musings of truth. In particular, Mansfield draws out the world-historical significance of Machiavelli's discovery or invention of the effectual truth and shows why Machiavelli can justly be called the founder of modernity. Remember, Machiavelli says, I would not know of any better precept to give a new prince than the example of his action. And yet if you read chapter seven of The Prince carefully, you will find that Borgia was ultimately defeated by the great antagonist of virtue, namely fortune. There he is more specific: fortune is a woman who moves quickly with her foot on a wheel and who is largely bald-headed, except for a shock of hair that covers her face and prevents her from being recognized. Conspiracy is one of the most extensively examined themes in Machiavellis corpus: it is the subject of both the longest chapter of The Prince (P 19) and the longest chapter of the Discourses (D 3.6; see also FH 2.32, 7.33, and 8.1). In Machiavelli's view, such a leader . Machiavelli attended several of Savonarolas sermons, which may be significant since he did not seem inclined otherwise to attend services regularly. His nature, as opposed to that of Plato and Aristotle, lacked the lasting or eternal intelligibles of nature as they conceived it. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, The Renaissance 'Prince of Painters' made a big impact in his short life, Leonardo da Vinci transformed mapping from art to science, Dante's 'Inferno' is a journey to hell and back, This Renaissance 'superdome' took more than 100 years to build, This Italian artist became the first female superstar of the Renaissance, Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic Society. Praise and blame are levied by observers, but not all observers see from the perspective of conventional morality. He may also have seen some irony in what happened next: In 1500, in part by forgoing the protection of Florence, Sforza lost the cities of Imola and Forl to the man whom Machiavelli would one day make the model of his great work: Cesare Borgia. Even more famous than the likeness to a river is Machiavellis identification of fortune with femininity. Machiavelli and Gender. In, Tarcov, Nathan. Connell (2013) discusses The Princes composition. This image uses language similar to the description of successful princes in the very same chapter (as well as elsewhere, such as P 19 and 20). Savonarola was ousted in 1498; he was hanged and his body burned. Recent work has noted that it is precisely this section of the text that received the least attention from other Renaissance annotators, many of whom focused instead upon Epicurean views on love, virtue, and vice. The most notable recent member of this camp is Erica Benner (2017a, 2017b, 2013, and 2009), who argues that The Prince is thoroughly ironic and that Machiavelli presents a shocking moral teaching in order to subvert it. He ponders the political utility of public executions andas recent work has emphasizedcourts or public trials (D 3.1; compare the parlements of P 3 and P 19 and Cesares court of P 7). In something of a secularized echo of Augustinian original sin, Machiavelli even goes so far at times as to say that human beings are wicked (P 17 and 18) and that they furthermore corrupt others by wicked means (D 3.8). The Medici family backed some of the Renaissance's most beautiful paintings. On this question, some scholars highlight Renaissance versions of the Stoic notion of fate, which contemporaries such as Pietro Pomponazzi seem to have held. The most one can say about The Prince in this regard is that Kissinger and Nixon preferred it as their bedtime reading. Two things seem to characterize the effectual truth in Chapter 15. In canto 28 of Dantes Inferno, the so-called sowers of discord are punished in Hell by dismemberment. Although Machiavelli never mentions Lucretius by name, he did hand-copy the entirety of De rerum natura (drawing largely from the 1495 print edition). He claims that those who read his writings can more easily draw from them that utility [utilit] for which one should seek knowledge of histories (D I.pr). For example, Agathocles is characterized by inhumanity (inumanit; P8), and Hannibal was inhumanely cruel (inumana crudelt; P 17; see also D 3.21-22). The Discourses nevertheless remains one of the most important works in modern republican theory. However, in the Discourses he explores more carefully the possibility that the clash between them can be favorable (e.g., D 1.4). The lion symbolizes force, perhaps to the point of cruelty; the fox symbolizes fraud, perhaps to the point of lying about the deepest things, such as religion (P 18). At the beginning of his ascendancy, Scipio had never held any political positions and was not even eligible for them. histories. 3. There is an old story, perhaps apocryphal, that Lorenzo preferred a pack of hunting dogs to the gift of The Prince and that Machiavelli consequently swore revenge against the Medici. It is the only work that Machiavelli published while in office. Borgia was a contemporary of Machiavellis. What exactly is meant here, however? One must learn to imitate not only the force of the lion but also the fraud of the fox (P 7, 18, and 19; D 2.13 and 3.40). Machiavelli was the first theorist to decisively divorce politics from ethics, and hence to give a certain autonomy to the study of politics. Like The Prince, the Art of War ends with an indictment of Italian princes with respect to Italys weak and fragmented situation. Virtue involves flexibilitybut this is both a disciplined and an optimistic flexibility. At any rate, how The Prince fits together with the Discourses (if at all) remains one of the enduring puzzles of Machiavellis legacy. During this period, Giovanni de Medici became Pope Leo X upon the death of Julius II, in 1513. He wrote a play called Le Maschere (The Masks) which was inspired by Aristophanes Clouds but which has not survived. At the end of the first chapter (D 1.1), Machiavelli distinguishes between things done inside and outside the city of Rome. He was released in March and retired to a family house (which still stands) in SantAndrea in Percussina. Machiavellis understanding of glory (gloria) is substantially beholden to that of the Romans, who were great lovers of glory (D 1.37; see also D 1.58 and 2.9). LAsino (The Golden Ass) is unfinished and in terza rima; it has been called an anti-comedy and was probably penned around 1517. Machiavelli is most famous as a political philosopher. Girolamo Savonarola was a Dominican friar who came to Florence in 1491 and who effectively ruled the city from 1494 to 1498 from the pulpits of San Marco and Santa Reparata. Between 1510 and 1515, Machiavelli wrote several sonnets and at least one serenade. Machiavelli abandoned a moralistic approach to human behavior in order to express his values of what develops a good leader. Machiavelli and the Medici. In, Clarke, Michelle Tolman. As he puts it, we must learn how not to be good (P 15 and 19) or even how to enter into evil (P 18; compare D 1.52), since it is not possible to be altogether good (D 1.26). It is worth noting in passing that we possess autograph copies of two of Strozzis works in Machiavellis hand (Commedia and Pistola). The spectacle of punishment on the one hand leaves the people satisfied, because iniquities, cruelties, and injustices were indeed committed against the people by the minister, but on the other hand it also leaves them stupefied, in the sense that it reminds everyone of an awesome power operating behind the scenes. Human beings enjoy novelty; they especially desire new things (D 3.21) or things that they do not have (D 1.5). One of fortunes most important roles is supplying opportunity (e.g., P 6 and 20, as well as D 1.10 and D 2.pr). Scholars thus remain divided on this question. It is worth noting that Scipio, who imitates Cyrus, is criticized for excessive mercy (or piety; P 17). Machiavelli for instance decries the imitation of bad models in these corrupt centuries of ours (D 2.19); and some scholars believe that his recommendations regarding Cesare Borgia and Caesar in particular are attenuated and even completely subverted in the final analysis. 77,943. downloads. At least at first glance, it appears that Machiavelli does not believe that the polity is caused by an imposition of form onto matter. Finally, he claims that the first part or book will treat things done inside the city by public counsel. The Necessity to Be Not-Good: Machiavellis Two Realisms. In, Berlin, Isaiah. No one can engage in politics without submitting themselves to what Machiavelli calls this aspect of the world (P 18), which to say that no one can act in the world at all without displaying themselves in the very action (if not the result). To be virtuous might mean, then, not only to be self-reliant but also to be independent. He had three siblings: Primavera, Margherita, and Totto. Christianity itself its imagination of another world beyond the so-called real worldcompletely transformed the real politics of Europe. They are taken more by present things than by past ones (P 24), since they do not correctly judge either the present or the past (D 2.pr). Fortune, he wrote, was like a "violent river" that can flood and destroy the earth, but when it is quiet, leaders can use their free will to prepare for and conquer the rough river of fate. Two years before he wrote his famous 13-21 September 1506 letter to Giovan Battista Soderinithe so-called Ghiribizzi al Soderini (Musings to Soderini)Machiavelli wrote a now lost letter to Batolomeo Vespucci, a Florentine teacher of astrology at the University of Padua. Machiavelli frequently returns to the way that necessity binds, or at least frames, human action. However, it should be noted that recent work has called into question whether these recommendations are sincere. Rahe (2017) and Parel (1992) discuss Machiavellis understanding of humors. This interpretation focuses upon the instabilityand even the deliberate destabilizationof political life. Xenophons Cyrus is chaste, affable, humane, and liberal (P 14). Furthermore, unlike a country such as France, Italy also had its own tradition of culture and inquiry that reached back to classical Rome. In Chapter 26, Machiavelli refers to extraordinary occurrences without example (sanza essemplo): the opening of the sea, the escort by the cloud, the water from the stone, and the manna from heaven. Plethon visited Florence in 1438 and 1439 due to the Council of Florence, the seventeenth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church (Plethon himself opposed the unification of the Greek and Latin Churches). Articles for a Pleasure Company is a satire on high society and especially religious confraternities. The number of chapters in the Discourses is 142, which is the same number of books in Livys History. Machiavelli Ristorante Italiano, Sydney: See 307 unbiased reviews of Machiavelli Ristorante Italiano, rated 4 of 5 on Tripadvisor and ranked #240 of 5,445 restaurants in Sydney. His philosophical legacy remains enigmatic, but that result should not be surprising for a thinker who understood the necessity to work sometimes from the shadows. Arguably no philosopher since antiquity, with the possible exception of Kant, has affected his successors so deeply. Previously, princely conduct guides had dwelled on how a ruler gains power through his or her right and legitimacy to rule. In fact, if you read Machiavellis letters about this incidentMachiavelli was a diplomat at the time and was actually present when the body was placed in the piazza of CesenaMachiavelli suggests that Borgia was even engaging in literary allusions in this spectacle of punishment. With respect to the first implication, Machiavelli occasionally refers to the six Aristotelian political forms (e.g., D 1.2). Trapping the Prince: Machiavelli and the Politics of Deception., Duff, Alexander S. Republicanism and the Problem of Ambition: The Critique of Cicero in Machiavellis, Forde, Steven. . Ancient philosophy, literature, and history were regularly discussed there, in addition to contemporary works on occasion (for example, some of Machiavellis Discourses on Livy). Sometimes, Machiavelli seems to mean that an action is unavoidable, such as the natural and ordinary necessity (necessit naturale e ordinaria; P 3) of a new prince offending his newly obtained subjects. In 1527, Clement refused Henry VIIIs request for an annulment. "But since my intention is to write something useful for anyone who understands it, it seemed more suitable for me to search after the effectual truth of the matter rather than its imagined one. This hypothetical claim is often read as if it is a misogynistic imperative or at least a recommendation. Books 3 and 4 concern issues regarding battle, such as tactics and formation. A wise prince for Machiavelli is not someone who is content to investigate causesincluding superior causes (P 11), first causes (P 14 and D 1.4), hidden causes (D 1.3), and heavenly causes (D 2.5). Machiavelli is among the handful of great philosophers who is also a great historian. Almost from its composition, The Prince has been notorious for its seeming recommendations of cruelty; its seeming prioritization of autocracy (or at least centralized power) over more republican or democratic forms; its seeming lionization of figures such as Cesare Borgia and Septimius Severus; its seeming endorsements of deception and faith-breaking; and so forth. Machiavelli makes a remark concerning military matters that he says is truer than any other truth (D 1.21). So, at a young age, Machiavelli was exposed to many classical authors who influenced him profoundly; as he says in the Discourses, the things that shape a boy of tender years will ever afterward regulate his conduct (D 3.46). "A true 'Machiavellian' entrepreneur or executive would be an innovator capable of creating new and better ways of producing and distributing products and services. While in the United States, Tocqueville noted that people in democratic nations value equality over everything, even liberty. In replacing the world of intelligible nature with the world of sense, he discovered the world of fact underneath the reason of things. Some scholars believe that Machiavelli critiques both Plato and Renaissance Platonism in such passages. This phrase at times refers literally to ones soldiers or troops. The first camp takes The Prince to be a satirical or ironic work. Figures as great as Moses, Romulus, Cyrus, and Theseus are no exception (P 6), nor is the quasi-mythical redeemer whom Machiavelli summons in order to save Italy (P 26). 179. There is reason to suspect that Machiavelli had begun writing the Discourses as early as 1513; for instance, there seems to be a reference in The Prince to another, lengthier work on republics (P 2). In a letter Machiavelli recalled how Savonarola could captivate an audience and noted how the friar acts in accordance with the times and colours his lies accordingly. Savonarola made an impression on Machiavelli, who later wrote of him in The Prince, calling him an unarmed prophet. While he admired the friars ability to adapt his message to the circumstances, Machiavelli later noted that while this skill might help one gain power, words alone were not enough to secure it: Force was necessary to keep a firm grip. For example, it may be the case that a materially secure people would cease to worry about being oppressed (and might even begin to desire to oppress others in the manner of the great); or that an armed people would effectively act as soldiers (such that a prince would have to worry about their contempt rather than their hatred). Even the good itself is variable (P 25). It is worth noting that, while these formulations are in principle compatible with the acquisition of intellectual or spiritual things, most of Machiavellis examples suggest that human beings are typically preoccupied with material things. (Was Cesare Borgia's sister Lucrezia political pawn or predator?). It also raises the question as to whether Machiavelli writes in a manner similar to Xenophon (D 3.22). Let me give you some more terms which I think encompass the meaning of virt in The Prince: I think probably the best word we have in English would be ingenuity. The princes supreme quality should be ingenuity, or efficacy. Pope Julius II kneels in an early 16th-century fresco, The Mass at Bolsena, by Raphael. From there, Machiavelli wrote a letter to a friend on . Though he admits that he has sometimes been inclined to this position, he ponders a different possibility so that our free will not be eliminated (perch il nostro libero arbitrio non sia spento). Life must have seemed good for Niccol Machiavelli in late 1513. He urges the study of history many times in his writings (e.g., P 14, as well as D 1.pr and 2.pr), especially with judicious attention (sensatamente; D 1.23; compare D 3.30). This pregnant silence may suggest that Machiavelli eventually came to see fortune, and not virtue, as the preeminent force in human affairs. The difference between a monarchy and a republic is a difference in form. He seems to have taken revenge by popularising a sensational story about her reaction on learning, in a 1488 siege, that her children had been taken hostage: She stood on the ramparts, he wrote in The Prince, and to prove to [her captors] that she cared not for her children, she pointed to her sexual parts, calling out to them that she had wherewith to have more children.. Everything, even ones faith (D 1.15) and ones offspring (P 11), can be used instrumentally. These gardens were cultivated by Bernardo Rucellai, a wealthy Florentine who was a disciple of Ficino and who was also the uncle of two Medici popes, Leo X and Clement VII (via his marriage to Nannina, the eldest sister of Lorenzo the Magnificent). Some examples include Benner (2017a), Celenza (2015), Black (2013 and 2010), Atkinson (2010), Skinner (2010), Viroli (2010, 2000, and 1998), de Grazia (1989), and Ridolfi (1964). Scholars have highlighted at least two implications of Machiavellis use of this image: that observers see the world from different perspectives; and that it is difficult, if not impossible, to see oneself from ones own perspective.
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